HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES OF TAX LAW essays

HISTORY AND OBJECTIVES OF TAX LAW essays Tax Law in our country is as old as the constitution itself and the history of taxes in this land goes back to the days of British colonial rule. One thing, which must be remembered, is that tax law id directly connected with government revenues. Higher the taxes, greater the revenues. For this reason, taxes are used as a good source of government's income. Revenue collection is usually the most important purpose behind the imposition of a new tax or increase in the present ones. However revenue collection is not the sole objective even though it is certainly the most important one. There are other reasons for which taxes are either increased or decreased. Tax law is actually one of the very few fiscal measures that government has to control the financial markets. Apart from its main objective, which is revenue for the government, taxes also help in controlling economic activity in the country and are often used by the government to control the flow of money in the markets. During the colonial days, when British rulers needed money for their war with France, taxes were levied on poor colonies, which did not enjoy any representation in the government. This led to the famous no taxation without representation' debate. After the American Revolution, the country had no deferral taxes for some time since the central government did not have the power to levy taxes. Each state was autonomous and was seen as a separate sovereign power that could levy the taxes according to the needs of their respective governments. Since there was no clear constitution for more than a decade after the independence, federal tax law was non-existent and only state taxes existed. However after the adoption of Constitution in 1789, federal government became more powerful as the Constitution recognized its right to "lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, pay the Debts and ...

Transition Words

Transition Words Transition Words Transition Words By Maeve Maddox A frequent fault of inexperienced writers is a tendency to present thoughts and ideas without showing connections between them, or without making their significance clear to the reader. Transition words and phrases keep the reader on track by showing relationships between ideas and information. Consider the following paragraph: People who adopt a dog need to teach it basic commands.  Basic obedience keeps the animal safe and prevents it from becoming a danger. Many pet owners fail to teach their dogs to obey. They should always consider the need to train their puppies to obey. The writer of this paragraph sees value in training a dog in basic obedience, but a reader might wonder what connection there is between basic obedience and the dog’s safety or dangerous behavior. Transitions are needed to show these connections. The paragraph revised: People who adopt a dog need to teach it basic commands in order to keep it safe and prevent it from harming others. For example, a dog that won’t come when called might run into the street and be hit by a car. A dog not trained to keep from jumping on people could cause injury by knocking someone down. Unfortunately, many pet owners fail to teach their dogs to obey, and, as a result, the animal becomes a nuisance or danger to family and strangers alike. To avoid undesirable behavior in their pets, dog owners should always consider the need to train puppies in basic obedience. Here is a list of transition words grouped according to the types of transition they can be used for: To add information: and, not onlybut also, also, moreover, furthermore, in addition, again, besides, equally important, what’s more, too To give examples: for example, for instance, specifically, in particular To show contrast: but, however, on the other hand, otherwise, instead, in contrast To show concession: yet, nevertheless, however, although, even though, despite the fact that, despite To show similarity: likewise, similarly, in the same way To show result: so, as a result, therefore, thus, as a consequence, consequently To indicate time or sequence: first, second, finally, meanwhile, immediately, thereafter, soon, finally, previously, formerly, next, following this, after, soon, therefore To offer conditional thoughts: or, whetheror, ifthen To explain or emphasize: in fact, actually, in other words, namely, obviously, in any case, naturally, certainly, unquestionably To offer alternatives: or, eitheror, neithernor To compare: on the other hand, on the contrary, by comparison, compared to, balanced against, visvis, although, in contrast To prove: because, for, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, in fact, in any case To conclude: in conclusion, in brief, on the whole, to conclude, as I have shown Some transition words, like also, and, or, like, as for, and further are unobtrusive, directing the reader without distracting. Others, like albeit, jump out at the reader and must be used sparingly. Still other transitions cast doubt on the credibility of the writer. Here are some transitions often seen in freshman compositions. They are perhaps best avoided: in all honesty, to tell the truth, to put it briefly, be that as it may, last but not least, to get back to the point, to make a long story short. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Fly, Flew, (has) FlownFlied?30 Baseball Idioms5 Erroneously Constructed â€Å"Not Only . . . But Also† Sentences

Alvin Ailey Biography Overview Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Alvin Ailey Biography Overview - Research Paper Example The research paper "Alvin Ailey Biography Overview" presents the description of Alvin's way to success. Having graduated from high school in the year 1948, Alvin went to the University of California with the intention of becoming a teacher but his interest in dance soon came back, particularly after he came across the Lester Horton Dance Theatre giving a dance. Horton’s highly theatrical modern dance style and his apparent interest in Native American dances and culture greatly attracted Alvin and he thought of changing his course from teaching to dance. He won a scholarship and enrolled for technique and dance composition classes with Lester Horton. He also got employment with Horton’s stage crew and danced with them. In the year 1951, seeking a more stable career, Alvin enrolled for a major in Romance languages in San Francisco State College. While there, he got to dance with a touring company and soon realized that what he really wanted was dance regardless of how ris ky it was compared to the dependable and stable teaching career. He rejoined the Los Angeles’ Lester Horton Dance Theatre and Lester Horton died suddenly in the year 1953, leaving the company without a director. They asked Alvin to choreograph some dances. He taught at Horton Dance School but later got an opportunity of dancing in a concert in New York and moved to the East Coast. In the year in 1954, Alvin went to New York to dance in the Broadway production of ‘House of Flowers’ with a partner called Carmen DeLavallade and in the year 1958.

A linear relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A Linear Relationship - Essay Example The politician wants to reduce the independent variable in order to achieve a desired dependent variable. The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the increase in crime. The increase in crime is the dependent variable in this situation since its results depends on the independent variable of early release of prison inmates. The dependent variable is the observed results of a manipulation of an independent variable. The increase of crime depends on the number of prison inmates released early. The observation results in the conclusion, which is that the increase of crime depends on the release of prison inmates and thus the independent variable is the release of prison inmates while the dependent variable is the increase in crime. 2.A negative linear relationship occurs in a state where there exists a reduction of a dependent variable because of an increase in the independent variable. A nonlinear relationship, on the other hand, is a situation where the relationships between vari ables are not directly correlated. A nonlinear relationship is evident where there is a more than or less than proportionate change in the dependent variable as a caused by the change in the independent variable. In this situation, the implied relationship is a positive linear relationship since the early release of criminals leads to an increase in crime. The increase in the number of prison inmates released early causes the rate of crime to go up. The politician believes that the elimination of parole will reduce the rate of crime. The hypothesis here us that the increase of the independent variable, which is the premature, release of the criminals leads to the increase of the dependent variable that is the rate of crime. According to the politician, the elimination of parole will reduce the rate of crime. The elimination of parole, which is the independent variable, translates to the reduction of the dependent variable that is the crime rate. In light of this, the implied relatio nship is a positive linear one. 3. The politician cannot correctly claim that there is a relationship between the early release and crime rate.  

Reliability and Validity Essay Example for Free

Reliability and Validity Essay Reliability is defined as the consistency of the measurement. The term can also be defined as the extent to which one instrument can be used in a similar way, every time it is utilized under similar circumstance, and with similar subjects. This is what it means to say that the measurements or the instruments are reliable. It is also the repeatability of measurement. Any measurement is considered reliable where the results of the same test are the same. It is crucial to note that reliability cannot be measured, but it is given as an estimate. To find out the reliability of a measurement, it is important to carry out an experiment more than once or use the same instrument for similar experiments. There are two basic kinds of reliability: test/retest and internal consistency. The first type is the most traditional approach in estimating reliability. The argument behind this approach is that there should be similar results in test 1 and test 2. The three basic concepts of this approach are: the measuring instrument should be implemented in two differing tests for every subject; the relationship between the two tests should be accurately computed; and the assumption that the fundamental condition should be made between the two tests. The other approach is the estimation of reliability by listing queries in a questionnaire that gauge the same concept. For instant, two groups of three queries can be written that gauge the same concept. Then the relationship between the two sets of three queries can be run to evaluate the reliability of the instrument. It is important to know how reliability test ought to be. Some of the guidelines to reliability are . 90 indicates high reliability, . 80 indicates moderate reliability, and . 70 indicates low reliability. High reliability is revealed where the majority of standardized tests show a score of . 90. For majority tests, low reliability is where for majority of standardized tests reveal a score of . 70. This is equivalent to 49 percent consistent variation. Reliability estimate of . 80 are moderate, where the estimate is below . 60, it is usually considered inappropriately low (Worthen, Borg and White, 1993). Validity refers to the strength of conclusions, deductions and proposals. A more formal definition by Cook and Campbell (1979) is that validity is the best estimate of the accuracy and inaccuracy available, of a provided deduction, proposal or conclusion. It is basically the degree to which a test does what it is supposed to do. It is the subjective finding that is based on experimentation and empirical pointers. There are two basic types of validity: face validity and construct validity. The face validity is the most basic and must be supported by other types. What is refers to is whether on the surface the measure seems to measure does what it is supposed to do. Face validity is the beginning point, and it is not valid for any use. The test has been used to indicate high reliability in punishing witches. From this test, it is estimated that 100,000 women argued to be witches were condemned and burnt. A measure that has construct validity is one that has been proved to measure what it is supposed to gauge. Criterion, which includes predictive and concurrent; convergence, and discriminative validity are elements that contributive to construct validity. Validity and reliability of the development of experimental evaluations is a basic part of the scientific method. Without a reliable and valid method, accurate scientific results and deductions cannot be obtained (Worthen, Borg and White, 1993). Freuds Theory of Personality vs. Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud was the first individual to come up with the theory that explains how the mind or psyche operates. He developed his ideas from working with people suffering from psychological disorders. He held the belief that personality is made up of three basic structures. The three are the id, the ego and the superego. The id according to Freud is the structure that has instincts. He argued that this structure is totally unconscious. This means that the id does not have any contact with the realism (Mischel, 1999). The second structure of personality comes up as a child experiences the demands and limitations of the realism. This structure is what Freud referred to as the ego. This according to Freud is the structure of personality that emerges to deal with the stresses and the constraints of the reality. It is considered the executive structure of personality. This is due to the fact that it utilizes reason in decision making. According to Freud the ego and the id lack morality. They do not take into consideration what is wrong or right. The moral structure of personality according to Freud is the superego. It is the branch that takes into consideration if an act is right or wrong. It is what is basically known as the conscience. The consideration of Freud about personality is that it is similar to an iceberg. This means that most of our personality is in existence beneath our degree of consciousness. His argument is that most of the personality exists in this form. In examining people’s personality, there is revelation of the evidence of ego and superego. Where the two are partly unconscious and partly conscious, the id is the unconscious, which means that it is one that exists below our awareness. The ego utilizes the defense mechanism to solve the conflict between wishes of the id and the limitations of the superego. Freud added that it is the contradicting demands of the personality structures that lead to anxiety. According to Freud, oppression is the strongest and most persistent defense mechanism. It is the mechanism that pushes the unacceptable demands of the id out of consciousness. It is basically the foundation of all the other defense mechanisms (Mitchell and Black, 1995). Neo-Freudian theorists are those who were in agreement with the ideas of Freud, but transformed them and used them to come up with their own theories. The ideas of Freud, though controversial have influenced a lot of theorists. Most of the theorists support the idea of the unconscious psyche and its significance in childhood. There are other ideas that the theorists did not agree with. Some of these thinkers include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, Erik Erikson and Karen Horney. Jung was in agreement with the idea of the unconscious mind. There are various reasons as to why most of these theorists disagreed with Freud. Erikson disagreed with the idea that personality is developed entirely from childhood experiences. There are a number of general similarities between the ideas of Freud and those of the neo-Freudian theorists. There was agreement with the fact that the unconscious is the key influence of character (Mischel, 1999). They also agreed that there is influence on personality from childhood events. The Neo-Freudian theorist like Jung agreed with the ideas of defense mechanism and dream interpretation. The neo-Freudian theorists disagreed with the argument that development stopped at age five or six. They also did not agree with instinctual drives. The other thing that they failed to agree on is the emphasis on the pathological factions of personality, degrading and pessimistic. From the point of view of one of the neo-Freudian theorists, the paper will evaluate Alfred Adler. He agreed with Freud on the importance of the initial years of one’s life. He also agreed with the unconsciousness of what drives us. He also agreed on the ideas of Freud on dream interpretation and analysis. His disagreement was based on the influence of the parents in a child’s development, people actively establishing their own destiny; availability of therapy goals; and the influence of superiority, not sexuality (Mitchell and Black, 1995). The Situation versus Trait Controversy The situation versus trait controversy is a topic that has been assessed, discussed, analyzed and resolved by very many psychologists in the past few years. This controversy is basically the disagreement on whether it the situation or traits that are responsible for the character of a person. The debate is said to have been started by Walter Mischel in his title Personality and Assessment. The book offered to empirical arguments about the approach to personality. His first argument was that character traits have a relationship of approximately 0. 30 with the way individuals behave in specific situations. The other argument is that the cross-situational constancy of character is about 0. 20 to 0. 30. His conclusion was that character traits are not positive predictors of the way people behave. He added that situations are more significant in people’s behavior. He also claimed that character traits do not exist in reality. This was supported by the argument that behavior changes with situation. His ideas arose a lot of debates on the issue with some people in support and others opposing. During this time, there were psychologists who were already carrying out researches to measure personality. The ideas of Mischel were supported by the critics of personality. They were basically behaviorism theorists who claimed that the best explanation of behavior was the environment. They based this argument on the notion of psychology being a science of tangibles and observables as opposed to intangibles like emotions, character traits and thoughts. For some time this idea was adapted quite a number of psychologists (Mischel, 1999). The other side of the debate took effect from the 70s, where psychologists began accepting the innate states like cognitions that influence how people behave. From this point of view, it is argued that the character traits are the ones that determine how people behave. This is the side of the debate that garnered more support that the situation one. Many of the psychologists now are in agreement with the fact that character traits exists in reality and that it is best suited in predicting behavior that the environment. The agreement is that both of the experimental arguments by Mischel were partially accurate, but the relationships approximations of 0. 30 between character traits and the way people behave, and behavior across environments, were given by other psychological researchers to be 0. 40. The supporters of the situation side of argument did not anticipate questions about the interpretation of their empirical results. It was not possible to tell whether it was 0. 30 or 0. 40 that was the small correlation (Fleeson and Noftle, 2009). It was also not possible to tell how this compared to the relationship between environments and how people behave. The answers were provided by two supporters of trait psychology, David Funder and Dan Ozer. They provided the answers by reviewing the different standard experiments in social psychology. These experiments were aimed at establishing how behavior is affected by environment. One of the studies evaluated was by Stanley Milgram. This is the study on obedience that employed counterfeit electric shocks to establish the way individuals reacting to hurting others. Here Funder and Ozer realized that the relationship between environments and the way people behave was from 0. 36-0. 42. This was almost similar to predictive capability of character traits. Another study that nullified the work of Mischel was the findings of Seymour Epstein. His findings suggested that in one complete behavior over a considerable period of time, as opposed to viewing single situations, the cross-situational constancy of the way people behave can be normally as high as 0. 80 to 0. 90. This means that the trait side of the controversy seemed to carry more weight than the situation side. The trait side of explaining behavior is what is followed by most psychologists currently, although studies are always being carried out (Fleeson and Noftle, 2009). References: Fleeson, W. , Noftle, E. E. (2009). The End of the Person-Situation Debate: an Emerging Synthesis in the Answer to the Consistency Question, Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2 (4), 1667-1684. Mischel, W. (1999). Introduction to Personality. Sixth edition. Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace. Mitchell, S. Black, M. J. (1995). Freud and Beyond: a History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. New York: Basic Books. Worthen, B. R. , Borg, W. R. , and White, K. R. (1993). Measurement and Evaluation in the School. New York: Longman.

The Two Faced Salieri :: essays research papers

â€Å"Now a madness began in me. The madness of a man splitting in half†. Even though this was uttered by Salieri, it’s our life! And yet we still don’t know what’s in it. You might not notice, but everyone in this world has two sides, one dark and the other light. The quote above also has two sides. On one hand he was a noble court composer, on the other hand he was really evil and was filled up with jealousy. Did Salieri control his two different sides or did he believe in one side and invaded the other? In the following few paragraphs, I am going to prove to you how Salieri was a two faced person. Salieri was a noble, decent and a mature person. After his father died, God gave him what he needed and made him a court composer for the Emperor. He was simply a model of virtue for other people. â€Å"I kept my hands off woman†. This was said by Salieri and this quote also proves that he was respectful and an honored person. â€Å"Teaching students, many of them for free, sitting on endless committees to help poor musicians†. This quote was also said by the court composer Salieri. This quote tells all of us that he was a really nice person and didn’t want anything in return because God gave him what he needed the most. â€Å"Let me celebrate your glory through music†. This shows us that he was very dedicated to his religion and to God. â€Å"I was the most successful musician in Vienna†. Salieri was really happy when he knew he was the greatest composer of Vienna but when ever there is a good time for a person, there is also a bad. Salieriâ⠂¬â„¢s evil side took over part of his good side and this all happened when he arrived. The most famous composer named Mozart. Salieri like everyone else also had a bad side. He was really jealous when Mozart took over his dreams. Mozart was also a composer and he became well known in Vienna through his music. When Salieri first saw Mozart he thought how can such a vulgar man create such great music. Salieri was really mad at God for making such a disgusting and a dirty minded person such a great composer.

Lab Report Caloric Content of Food Purpose

Student's Name Date of Experiment- 11/27/12 Date Report Submitted 11/27/12 Title: Caloric Content of Food Purpose: to be able to measure the energy content of foods Procedure: We are going to take food items and burn them to heat water to be able to determine the amount of â€Å"energy† a food source can emit. Data Tables: Data Table 1: Food Item – Observations | |Food Item Description: |Marshmallow |Peanut / Walnut |Potato Chip | |Mass of food & holder – initial |40. 2g |18. 0g |15g | |Mass of food & holder – final |38. 6g |16. 0g |12. g | |Mass of food burnt |1. 6g |2g |2. 5g | |Mass of beaker |66. 5g |66. 4g |66. 5g | |Mass of beaker & water |107. 2g |108. 2g |108. 2g | |Mass of water |40. 7g |41. g |41. 7g | |Water temp. – initial |23 C |22 C |22 C | |Water temp. – final |31 C |72 C |32 C | |Delta T (oC change) |8 C |50 C |10 C | Observations: The observations are noted above.Found it very interesting that the peanut was able to produce e nough heat to change the temperature of the water so much. Questions: A. Which of the foods tested contains the most energy per gram? The potato chip B. How do your experimental results compare to published values? I would say that my results were average C. What type of reaction is used in calorimetry? Combustion reaction D. What are the products of the reactions? Carbon dioxide and water E. Where did the products go? They vaporized into the air F.A student performing an experiment to determine the caloric content of a cashew nut collected the following data: ?Mass of cashew nut before burning: 0. 55 g ?After burning: 0. 05 g ?Temp. increase of 200 g of water: 7. 0 oC 1. Calculate the total energy released by the combustion of the cashew nut by using the water temp. increase, the mass of the water and specific heat capacity of water. q=delta t x m x cp – 58576 joules 2. Calculate the energy released per gram of cashew nut consumed in the reaction. 58,576j/0. 55g= 106502/4. 1 84= 24,455 or 2. cal 3. Using the following standards (carbohydrates (4 Cal/g), protein (4 Cal/g), and fats 9 Cal/g), determine the caloric content of a bag of your favorite snack food. Chili cheese fritos Carbs=60 Protein= 8 Fats= 90 Conclusions: Remember: Lab notes are evidence of your work and of your understanding of the concepts demonstrated in the experiments. They are also the primary basis for your chemistry lab grade. Write neatly and try to express your thoughts clearly, concisely, and completely so that someone else could duplicate your results.